Chapter Six

Key Terms:
Redox reaction- Short for oxidation-reaction; a chemical reaction in which electrons are lost from one substance and added to another. Oxidation and reduction always occur together.
Oxidation- The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction; always accompanies reduction.
Reduction- The gain of electrons by a sustance involved in a redox reaction; always accompanies oxidation.
Dehydrogenase- An enzyme that catalyzes a chamical reaction during which one or more hydrogen atoms are removed from a molecule.
Chemiosmosis- Energy-coupling mechanics that uses the energy of hydrogen ion gradients across membranes to phosphoarylate ADP; powers most ATP synthesis in cells.
Intermediates- The compounds that form between the initial reactant.
Lactic acid fermentation- The conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide.
Alcohol fermentation- The conversion of pyruvate from glycolysis to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.
Obligate Anaerobes- An organism that only carries out fermentation; such organisms cannot use oxygen and also may be poisoned by it.
Factultative Anaerobe- An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but that switches to fermentation when oxygen is absent.

Reading Journal:
1) What are the three main stages of cellular respiration? First is Glycolysis, which occurs in the cytoplasm and begins respiration by breaking glucose into two molecules to pyruvate. Second is the Citric Acid Cycle, which takes place in the Mitochondria and the main function is to supply the third stage of respiration with electrons. The Oxidative phosphorylation stage takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which involves the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.
2) What is Fermentation? under anaerobic conditions, muscle cells, yeasts, and certain bacteria to produce small amounts of ATP by glycolysis without oxygen.
3)What does cellular respiration provide? It provides ATP, which is required for ceullular work.

Five Facts:
1) The role of oxygen in cellular respiration is to accept electrons from the electron transport chain.
2) In glycolysis, glucose is oxidized and NAD is reduced.
3) Pyruvate to lactate is the first molecule to to reduce to the second molecule.
4) Cells use some food molecules and intermediates from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle as raw materials.
5) In oxidation/ reduction, electrons lose potential energy during their transfer from organic compounds to oxygen.

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for organisms. Photosynthesis is used exclusively in plants, using light as energy to produce glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Cellular respiration is given all of its energy from ATP to power cellular work. In oxidation/reduction, electrons lose potentional energy during their transfer from organic compounds to oxygen. in oxidation, it is the loss of electrons, while reduction is the addition of electrons.
In cellular respiration, ATP is made in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle and divided into three stages, glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. In Glycolysis, ATP is used to to split a glucose molecule in two. these turn into three carbon molecules and are oxidized and converted into two molecules pyruvate, a net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. The citric acid cycle, enzymes start to process the pyruvate, releasing CO2. It then produces NADH and acetyl CoA. Citrate is formedby adding a two carbongroup to a four carbon compound. for each cycle, 2CO2 are released and the energy yield is 1 ATP, 1FADH2, and 3NADH.
Oxidative Phosphorylation is composed of the electron transport chain and Chemiosmosis. In the electron transport chain, electrons from NADh and FADH2 are trasnported to oxygenn, while picking up hydrogen to form water, while releasing energy by these redox actions. in Chemiosmosis, the hydrogen goes down the concentration graident to and through the ATP synthase. Hydrogen provides energy for the ATP synthase, so that it can form ATP.

This process is called Chemiosmosios. After the hydrogen molecules travel down the hydrogen gradient, it goes through the ATP synthase. Here, it provides energy so that ADP and P forms to produce ATP.











Video Link cellular respiration:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vlZZUtpyCgQ

Chapter Five

Key Terms:
Selective Permeability: They allow some substances to cross more easily than others.
Concebtration Gradient: An increase or descrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area. Substances tend to move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated
Passive Transport: The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane. Much of the traffic across cell membranes occurs by diffusion.
Fluid Mosaic: A membrane is a "mosiac" in having diverse protein molecules embedded in a framework of phospholipids.
Osmoregulation: The control of water balance.
Isotonic: (iso,same, tonos, tension) the cell's volume remains constant. The solute same on both sides.
Hypotonic: More concentration of solute concentration of solute is higher outside cell.
Hypertonic: Less concentration of solute inside cell.
Facilitated diffusion: When one of the proteins makes it possible for a substance to move down its concentration gradient.
Aquaporins: Transport Proteins that help certain cells such as plant cells, kidney cells, and red blood ccells through diffusion.

Reading Journal:
1) What is ATP and what are its functions? ATP stands for adenosin triphosphate. It powers nearly all forms of cellular work.
2) What are inhibitors and what are its main use? Inhibitors are chemicals that interferes with an enzyme's activity. there are a few different kinds of inhibitors, competitive inhibitor,reduces an enzyme's productivity by blocking substrates from entering the active site. a noncompetitive does not enter the active site because it binds to the enzyme elsewhere, chagning its shape of the enzyme so that the active site no longer fits the substrate.
3) What are the Laws of Thermodynamics? There are two laws of thermodynamics. the first, states that the energy in the universe is constant. the second states that energy cannot be destroyed.

Five Facts:
1) A fluid mosaic is a cellular membrane is as diverse as a mosaic of diverse protein molecules embedded in a fluid bilayer made of phospholipid molecules
2) Enzymes are protein catalysts that decrease the energy of activation needed to behin a reaction.
3) Aquaporins are transport protein in the plasma membrane of some plant or animal cells that facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane.
4) Energy is the capacity to perform work.
5) The structure of a cell membrane are proteins embedded in a bilaryer of phospholipids.

Diffusion is the tendency for particles of any kind to spread out evenly in an available space, moving from where they are more concentrated to regions where they are less concentrated. A concentration gradient is an increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area. Passive transport is the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane. Osmosis is a process where the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. Tonicity describes the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water. A hypotonic solution is a solution with a solute concentration lower than that of the cell. A hypertonic solution is asolution with a higher solute concentration. an isotonic solution is where the cell's volume remains constant. Osmoregulation is the control of water balance. Facilitated diffusion is when one of the proteins makes it possible for a substance to move down its concentration gradient. Active transport is when a cell must expend energy to move a solute against its concentration gradient.
exocytosis is a process to export bulky materials like proteins and polysaccharides. Endocytosis is a transport process that the cell takes in substances. Phagocytosis is when a cell engulfs a particle by wrapping extensions around it and packaging it within a mebrane enclosed sac. pinocytosis is when the cell 'gulps' droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles. Receptor-mediated endocytosis when receptor proteins for specific molecules are embedded in regions of the membrane that are lined by a layer of coat proteins. Energy is the capacity to perform work. Kinetic enrgy is the energy of motion. Heat is a form of kinetic energy. Potential energy is stored energy that an object possesses as a result of its location or structure. Chemical energy refers to teh potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction. Cellular respiration is a chemical process that uses oxygen to convert the chemcial energy stored in fuel molecules to forma chemical energy that the cell can use to perform work. ATP powers nearly all forms of cellular work. ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. Phosphorylation is a transfer where a third phosphate group from ATP to another molecule.

A specific reactant that an enzyme acts on is an enzyme's substrate. The active site is where the substrate will fit. enzymes are specific because their active sites fit only specific substrate molecules.
1) thesubstance starts with the empty active site
2) the substance enters the active site.
3)the substrate is connected to the products.
4) products are then released.



Video Link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqsf_UJcfBc

Chapter Four

Key Terms:
Cell Theory: States that all living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from all other cells.
Cell Wall: Protects cells and help maintain their shape.
Flagella: locomotion organelles of some bacteria through liquid enviroments.
Cytoskeleton: A network of protein fibers that extend throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
Nucleoid: A region in a prokaryotic where the DNA lies
Glycoprotein: Short chains of sugars hat are often linked to the polypeptide.
Golgi apparatus: It serves as a molecular warehouse and finishing factory where it recievews and modifies products from the ER. One side serves as the recieving side from the ER. The other side is the shipping side.
Peroxisome: An organelle that is not part of the endomembrane system but is involved in various metabolic functions that also include the breakdown of fatty acids that can be used as fuel and detoxification of harmful substances.
Lysosome: Consists of digestive enzymes enclosed in a membranous sac.
Mitochondrion: Organelles that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells and convert the chemical energy of foods to ATP.

Reading Journal:

1) What does an electron miscrope do? An electron microscope uses a beam of electrons and has a higher resolution than a light microscope.
2) What is a plasmodesmata? They are channels between adjacent plant cells and forma circulatory and communication system connectin the cells in plant tissues.
3) What are examples of structures that are found in plant cells that aren't in animal cells? Some examples are the chloroplast, central vacuole, and the cell wall.

Five Facts:
1) A light microscope (LM) are the most commonly used microscope and use Glass lenses in the microscope to bend light to magnify the image of the specimen.
2) Bacteria and archea consist of prokaryotic cells. All other forms of life such as animals, plants, protists, and fungi consist of eukaryotic cells.
3) A cellular metabolism are the chemical activities of the cell.
4) The endomembrane system are physically connected and some are related by the transfer of membrane segments by tiny vesicles and include lysosomes, golgi apparatus, vacuoles, and the plasma membrane.
5) There are three types of cell junctions that are found in animal tissues: tight junctions (membranes of neighboring cells that are very tightly pressed against each other); Anchoring junctions (function like rivets fastening cells together into strong sheets); and gap junction (channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein lined pores between neighboring cells).

Light microscope (LM) works by passing visible light through a specimen. An electron microscope (EM) uses a beam of electrons and has a higher resolution than a light microscope. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) is used to study details of an internal cell structure. The cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from other cells. Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells and usually consist of bacteria and archea. Eukaryotic cells are composed of all other life forms such as animal, plant, fungi, and protists cells. For all cells, the structure of the membrane correlates with their functions. The plasma membrane and the internal membranes of a eukaryotic cell perofrm diverse functions. The nucleus is the cell's genetic control center. The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus. Ribosomes make proteins for the cell to use and export. The golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products after the products go through the endoplasmic reticulum. Lysosomes digest food and other structures of the cells that no longer work and take them out of the cell and contain enzymes. The mitochondria are organells that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells, converting the chemical energy of foods to ATP. in plant cells, chloroplasts covnert solar energy into chemical energy for the cell to use. Cilia anf flagella move when microtubules bend. Paramecium is an example of a specimen that have cilia. A sperm cell is an example of a specimen that has flagellum.

The hypothesis of endosymbiosis proposes that the mitochondria and chloroplasts were orignally separate prokaryote organisms. They were than taken in by larger cells and began to live within that cell. The reason behind this is that both organells are surrounded by a double membrane, and have ribosomes.



Video Link Cell Theory:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wiZFCMrx4Kg