Chapter Nine

Key Terms:
Character- a heritable feature that varies among individuals.
Trait- Each variatn for a character
Self-Fertilize- sperm- carrying pollen grains released from the stamens land on the egg containing carpel of the same flower.
Cross fertilization-fertilizaition of one plant by pollen from a different plant.
true-breeding- varieties for which self fertilizaiton produced offspring all identical to the parent.
hybrids- usually come from cross-fertilization.
alleles- alternative versions of a gene.
homozygous- an organism that has two identical alleles for a gene.
heterozygous- an organism that has two different alleles for a gene.
Law of segregation- When sperma nd egg unite at fertilizaiton, each conributes an allele restoring the paired condition in the offspring.

Reading Journal:
1) why did Mendel use pea? Short life span, bisexual, many traits known and cross- and self-pollinating.
2) how did Mendel work on peas? he controled other characters but make one variable, by cross-pollination, then record the data.
3) why did Mendel record so many data? for the sake of geting accurate datas

Five Facts:
1) Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance.
2)The laws of probability govern Mendelian inheritance.
3)Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics.
4)Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance.
5)Inheritance is pretty random but follow laws.

In the 1860s, Gregor Mendel formulated a theory of inheritance based on experiments with garden peas, introduced that parents pass on to their offspring discrete genes that retain their identity through generations. In a diploid organism, the two allels of a gene separates during gamete formation. Each sperm or egg carries only one allele of each pair with a ratio of F2 3:1. In heterozgotes, the two alleles are different , and the dominant allel phenotypic effect of the recessive allele. Homozygotes have identical alleles of a given gene and are true-breeding. Each pair of alleles segregates into gametes independently of the pair of allels for any other gene. in a cross between dihybrids, the offspring have four phenotypes in a 9:3:3:1 ratio.
The expresion of a genotype can be affected by environmental influences. The phenotypic range of a particular genotype is called its norm of reaction. Polygenic characters that are also influenced by the environment are called multifactorial character.

Here is an example of genetics. Taco tongue, or tongue rolling, is a recessive gene that can be carried on from parent to child.












Video Link Mendel:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EvR_Sdm1orU

Chapter Eight

Key Terms:
Haploid cells- half the number of chromosomes (23 for humans)
Control mechanisms- cells divide rapidly, often in the absence of growth factors
Polyploid- many chromosomes
Nondisjunction- An accident of meiosis or mitosis in which a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate at anaphase.
Diploid- In an organism that reproduces sexually, containing two homologous sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
Karyotype- shows stained and magnified versions of chromosomes
Chiasma- The ricroscopically visible site where crossing over has occured between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.
Getnetic recombination- the production of gene combinations different from those carried by the original chromosomes.
Sex Chromosomes- the X and Y chromosomes that determines a chromosomes sex (XX female and XY male)
Autosomes- other 22 pairs of chromosomes
deletion-loss of a chromosomal segment
duplication- a copy of a chromosomal segment
inversion- reversal of chromosomes
translocation-can be reciprocal;switched

Reading Journal:
1) What 'accidents' can occur during meiosis and what is a possible result?
You can have more chromosomes than you needed. this would result in a slight mutation and variation.
2) How are Karyotypes produced? Karyotypes are produced from dividing white blood cells, stoppped at metaphase.
3) How does cancer form? Growth is not inhibited by other cells, and tumors form and eventually spread through the blood system if it is not caught early.

Five Facts:
1)Carcinomas arise in external or internal body coverings.
2)Trisomy 21 involves in the inheritance of three copies of chromosome 21
3)Altered chromosomes carried by gametes cause birth defects
4)Chromosomal alterations in somatic cells can lead to cancer
5)Locacalized tumors can be treated with surgery or radiation, while Chemotherapy is used for metastic tumors.

Cell Division is important to the reproduction of cells and organisms, because new cells can only come from already existing cells.
Mitosis distributes duplicated chromosomes into two daughter cells. After chromosomes form, the spindle fiber appears and the microtubles move to the middle of cell. The spindle fiber then separates the sister chromatids apart and two nuclei form. A cleavage furrow will appear in animal cells, a cell plate in plant cells. Cytokinesis takes place, and fully separates the cytoplasm apart. Some important functions for mitosis include for growth, replacement, asexual reprodution, and occurs in somatic cells.
Meiosis occurs for sex cells. All of what takes place during mitosis occurs during meiosis, but with an extra process after. Also happening during meiosis I, is a process called crossing over. in crossing over, homologous chromosomes exchange the same segements. Meiosis II just separateseach homologous pair and produces two daughter cells. Separation of homologous chromosomes(crossing over) during meiosis leads to genetic differences between gametes.
In down syndrome, or trisomy 21, the incidence increases with the age of the mother. Trisomy 21 is caused by having an extra copy of chromosome 21. Down syndrome is characterized by
characteristic facial features, susceptibility to disease, shortened life span, mental retardation, and variation in characteristics.
Cancer cells are characterized by dividing excessively, where growth is not inhibited by other cells. These form masses of tissue called tumors. There are two types of tumors, malignant, which can invade other cells, and benign, which are less harmful. Radiation and chemotherapy are the most effective ways of treating cancer because they are able to interfere with cell division, thus stopping the cancer cells from growing.

Here is a karyotype of Trisomy 21, Aka Down syndrome. Here, there is one extra copy of chromosome 21. Other types of syndromes can occur if there is an extra copy of any chromosome, such as trisomy 13, trisomy 18, etc.
A karyotype is formed by dividing a white blood cell and stopping it during metaphase, so that it is easier to read.





Video Link Meiosis:
dividing white blood cells, stoppped at metaphase

Chapter Seven

Key Terms:
Autorophs- 'self feeders' they make their own food and sustain themselves without consuming organic molecules derived from any other organisms.
Photoautotrophs- organisms that produce organic molecules from inorganic molecules using the energy of light.
Producers- organisms that produce its food supply.
Stroma- a thick fluid that is filled in an envelope of two membranes.
Wavelength- the distance between the crests of two adjacent waves. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy. the longer the wavelength, the lesser the energy.
Photon- is a fixed quanity of light energy.
Photosystem- consists of a number of light-harvesting complexes surrounding a reaction center complex.
Photorespiration- the breakdown of a two carbon compound produced by the Calvin cycle. photorespiration produces no sugar molecules or ATP.
Electromagnetic spectrum- the full of range of electromagnetic wavelengths from the very short gamma rays to very long wavelength radio waves.
Carbon fixation-the incorporation of carbon from CO2 into organic compounds.

Reading Journal: 1) Where does photosynthesis occur? Photosynthesis occurs in the leaves, within chloroplasts, which contain stroma and grana.
2) What are the two stages of Photosynthesis? Light reactions, which convert light energy to ochemical energy, and the Calvin Cycle, which occur in the stroma.
3) How are the mitrochondria and photosynthesis similar? Both have an electron transport chain, ATP synthase, thylakoid space, ATP, and stroma. They also have a double membrane and contain their own ribosomes.

Five Facts: 1) Photosynthesis consumes water and produces oxygen.
2) Water is oxidized and carbon dioxide is reduced in photosynthesis. 3) The role of NADP in photosynthesis is to accept electrons and carry them to the Calvin Cycle. 4) Plants use the sugar they break downby using it as energy in cellular respiration, store excess sugar as starch, and use it as raw material for making other molecules. 5) Chemiosmosis is used in both Photosynthesis and cellualar respiration.

Photosynthesis contains two cycles, the light reaction and the calvin cycle. There are two photosystems as well, which absorb photons and transfer energy to the chlorophyll. The electrons are excited and passsed from electron acceptors to the electron transport chain, which is shuttled form photosystem II to I. As it is traveling the electron transport chain, it provides energy to make ATP. NADP is now reduced to NADPH, and photosystem II regains electrons by splitting water. During the Light reaction stage, ATP is synthesized during chemiosmosis.
The calvin cycle,occurs in the stroma. It consists of carbon fixation, reduction, release sugar(G3P), and regeneration of RuBP. these electrons are used to build glucose and other organic molecules.
There are also different kind of plants: C3, C4, CAM plants. C3 plants include soybeans, oats, wheat, and rice. these plants produce the three carbon 3-PGA. Stomata closes to reduce the water loss and O2 builds up in the leaf. C4 Plants are able to consume CO2 and go through the calvin cycle during all time of day. CAM plants only consume CO2 at night and go through the calvin cycle during the day.

Here is the basic overview of photosynthesis: the carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata. the chloroplasts capture the light energy and the water enters the leaf. The products of photosynthesis include chemical energy and sugar.















Video Link Photosynthesis:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C1_uez5WX1o

Chapter Six

Key Terms:
Redox reaction- Short for oxidation-reaction; a chemical reaction in which electrons are lost from one substance and added to another. Oxidation and reduction always occur together.
Oxidation- The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction; always accompanies reduction.
Reduction- The gain of electrons by a sustance involved in a redox reaction; always accompanies oxidation.
Dehydrogenase- An enzyme that catalyzes a chamical reaction during which one or more hydrogen atoms are removed from a molecule.
Chemiosmosis- Energy-coupling mechanics that uses the energy of hydrogen ion gradients across membranes to phosphoarylate ADP; powers most ATP synthesis in cells.
Intermediates- The compounds that form between the initial reactant.
Lactic acid fermentation- The conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide.
Alcohol fermentation- The conversion of pyruvate from glycolysis to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.
Obligate Anaerobes- An organism that only carries out fermentation; such organisms cannot use oxygen and also may be poisoned by it.
Factultative Anaerobe- An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but that switches to fermentation when oxygen is absent.

Reading Journal:
1) What are the three main stages of cellular respiration? First is Glycolysis, which occurs in the cytoplasm and begins respiration by breaking glucose into two molecules to pyruvate. Second is the Citric Acid Cycle, which takes place in the Mitochondria and the main function is to supply the third stage of respiration with electrons. The Oxidative phosphorylation stage takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which involves the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.
2) What is Fermentation? under anaerobic conditions, muscle cells, yeasts, and certain bacteria to produce small amounts of ATP by glycolysis without oxygen.
3)What does cellular respiration provide? It provides ATP, which is required for ceullular work.

Five Facts:
1) The role of oxygen in cellular respiration is to accept electrons from the electron transport chain.
2) In glycolysis, glucose is oxidized and NAD is reduced.
3) Pyruvate to lactate is the first molecule to to reduce to the second molecule.
4) Cells use some food molecules and intermediates from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle as raw materials.
5) In oxidation/ reduction, electrons lose potential energy during their transfer from organic compounds to oxygen.

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for organisms. Photosynthesis is used exclusively in plants, using light as energy to produce glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Cellular respiration is given all of its energy from ATP to power cellular work. In oxidation/reduction, electrons lose potentional energy during their transfer from organic compounds to oxygen. in oxidation, it is the loss of electrons, while reduction is the addition of electrons.
In cellular respiration, ATP is made in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle and divided into three stages, glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. In Glycolysis, ATP is used to to split a glucose molecule in two. these turn into three carbon molecules and are oxidized and converted into two molecules pyruvate, a net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. The citric acid cycle, enzymes start to process the pyruvate, releasing CO2. It then produces NADH and acetyl CoA. Citrate is formedby adding a two carbongroup to a four carbon compound. for each cycle, 2CO2 are released and the energy yield is 1 ATP, 1FADH2, and 3NADH.
Oxidative Phosphorylation is composed of the electron transport chain and Chemiosmosis. In the electron transport chain, electrons from NADh and FADH2 are trasnported to oxygenn, while picking up hydrogen to form water, while releasing energy by these redox actions. in Chemiosmosis, the hydrogen goes down the concentration graident to and through the ATP synthase. Hydrogen provides energy for the ATP synthase, so that it can form ATP.

This process is called Chemiosmosios. After the hydrogen molecules travel down the hydrogen gradient, it goes through the ATP synthase. Here, it provides energy so that ADP and P forms to produce ATP.











Video Link cellular respiration:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vlZZUtpyCgQ

Chapter Five

Key Terms:
Selective Permeability: They allow some substances to cross more easily than others.
Concebtration Gradient: An increase or descrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area. Substances tend to move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated
Passive Transport: The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane. Much of the traffic across cell membranes occurs by diffusion.
Fluid Mosaic: A membrane is a "mosiac" in having diverse protein molecules embedded in a framework of phospholipids.
Osmoregulation: The control of water balance.
Isotonic: (iso,same, tonos, tension) the cell's volume remains constant. The solute same on both sides.
Hypotonic: More concentration of solute concentration of solute is higher outside cell.
Hypertonic: Less concentration of solute inside cell.
Facilitated diffusion: When one of the proteins makes it possible for a substance to move down its concentration gradient.
Aquaporins: Transport Proteins that help certain cells such as plant cells, kidney cells, and red blood ccells through diffusion.

Reading Journal:
1) What is ATP and what are its functions? ATP stands for adenosin triphosphate. It powers nearly all forms of cellular work.
2) What are inhibitors and what are its main use? Inhibitors are chemicals that interferes with an enzyme's activity. there are a few different kinds of inhibitors, competitive inhibitor,reduces an enzyme's productivity by blocking substrates from entering the active site. a noncompetitive does not enter the active site because it binds to the enzyme elsewhere, chagning its shape of the enzyme so that the active site no longer fits the substrate.
3) What are the Laws of Thermodynamics? There are two laws of thermodynamics. the first, states that the energy in the universe is constant. the second states that energy cannot be destroyed.

Five Facts:
1) A fluid mosaic is a cellular membrane is as diverse as a mosaic of diverse protein molecules embedded in a fluid bilayer made of phospholipid molecules
2) Enzymes are protein catalysts that decrease the energy of activation needed to behin a reaction.
3) Aquaporins are transport protein in the plasma membrane of some plant or animal cells that facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane.
4) Energy is the capacity to perform work.
5) The structure of a cell membrane are proteins embedded in a bilaryer of phospholipids.

Diffusion is the tendency for particles of any kind to spread out evenly in an available space, moving from where they are more concentrated to regions where they are less concentrated. A concentration gradient is an increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area. Passive transport is the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane. Osmosis is a process where the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. Tonicity describes the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water. A hypotonic solution is a solution with a solute concentration lower than that of the cell. A hypertonic solution is asolution with a higher solute concentration. an isotonic solution is where the cell's volume remains constant. Osmoregulation is the control of water balance. Facilitated diffusion is when one of the proteins makes it possible for a substance to move down its concentration gradient. Active transport is when a cell must expend energy to move a solute against its concentration gradient.
exocytosis is a process to export bulky materials like proteins and polysaccharides. Endocytosis is a transport process that the cell takes in substances. Phagocytosis is when a cell engulfs a particle by wrapping extensions around it and packaging it within a mebrane enclosed sac. pinocytosis is when the cell 'gulps' droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles. Receptor-mediated endocytosis when receptor proteins for specific molecules are embedded in regions of the membrane that are lined by a layer of coat proteins. Energy is the capacity to perform work. Kinetic enrgy is the energy of motion. Heat is a form of kinetic energy. Potential energy is stored energy that an object possesses as a result of its location or structure. Chemical energy refers to teh potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction. Cellular respiration is a chemical process that uses oxygen to convert the chemcial energy stored in fuel molecules to forma chemical energy that the cell can use to perform work. ATP powers nearly all forms of cellular work. ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. Phosphorylation is a transfer where a third phosphate group from ATP to another molecule.

A specific reactant that an enzyme acts on is an enzyme's substrate. The active site is where the substrate will fit. enzymes are specific because their active sites fit only specific substrate molecules.
1) thesubstance starts with the empty active site
2) the substance enters the active site.
3)the substrate is connected to the products.
4) products are then released.



Video Link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqsf_UJcfBc

Chapter Four

Key Terms:
Cell Theory: States that all living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from all other cells.
Cell Wall: Protects cells and help maintain their shape.
Flagella: locomotion organelles of some bacteria through liquid enviroments.
Cytoskeleton: A network of protein fibers that extend throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
Nucleoid: A region in a prokaryotic where the DNA lies
Glycoprotein: Short chains of sugars hat are often linked to the polypeptide.
Golgi apparatus: It serves as a molecular warehouse and finishing factory where it recievews and modifies products from the ER. One side serves as the recieving side from the ER. The other side is the shipping side.
Peroxisome: An organelle that is not part of the endomembrane system but is involved in various metabolic functions that also include the breakdown of fatty acids that can be used as fuel and detoxification of harmful substances.
Lysosome: Consists of digestive enzymes enclosed in a membranous sac.
Mitochondrion: Organelles that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells and convert the chemical energy of foods to ATP.

Reading Journal:

1) What does an electron miscrope do? An electron microscope uses a beam of electrons and has a higher resolution than a light microscope.
2) What is a plasmodesmata? They are channels between adjacent plant cells and forma circulatory and communication system connectin the cells in plant tissues.
3) What are examples of structures that are found in plant cells that aren't in animal cells? Some examples are the chloroplast, central vacuole, and the cell wall.

Five Facts:
1) A light microscope (LM) are the most commonly used microscope and use Glass lenses in the microscope to bend light to magnify the image of the specimen.
2) Bacteria and archea consist of prokaryotic cells. All other forms of life such as animals, plants, protists, and fungi consist of eukaryotic cells.
3) A cellular metabolism are the chemical activities of the cell.
4) The endomembrane system are physically connected and some are related by the transfer of membrane segments by tiny vesicles and include lysosomes, golgi apparatus, vacuoles, and the plasma membrane.
5) There are three types of cell junctions that are found in animal tissues: tight junctions (membranes of neighboring cells that are very tightly pressed against each other); Anchoring junctions (function like rivets fastening cells together into strong sheets); and gap junction (channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein lined pores between neighboring cells).

Light microscope (LM) works by passing visible light through a specimen. An electron microscope (EM) uses a beam of electrons and has a higher resolution than a light microscope. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) is used to study details of an internal cell structure. The cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from other cells. Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells and usually consist of bacteria and archea. Eukaryotic cells are composed of all other life forms such as animal, plant, fungi, and protists cells. For all cells, the structure of the membrane correlates with their functions. The plasma membrane and the internal membranes of a eukaryotic cell perofrm diverse functions. The nucleus is the cell's genetic control center. The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus. Ribosomes make proteins for the cell to use and export. The golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products after the products go through the endoplasmic reticulum. Lysosomes digest food and other structures of the cells that no longer work and take them out of the cell and contain enzymes. The mitochondria are organells that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells, converting the chemical energy of foods to ATP. in plant cells, chloroplasts covnert solar energy into chemical energy for the cell to use. Cilia anf flagella move when microtubules bend. Paramecium is an example of a specimen that have cilia. A sperm cell is an example of a specimen that has flagellum.

The hypothesis of endosymbiosis proposes that the mitochondria and chloroplasts were orignally separate prokaryote organisms. They were than taken in by larger cells and began to live within that cell. The reason behind this is that both organells are surrounded by a double membrane, and have ribosomes.



Video Link Cell Theory:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wiZFCMrx4Kg

Chapter Three

Key terms:
Organic Compounds: Carbon based molecules.
Carbon Skeleton: chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule.
Hydrocarbons: compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen.
Isomers: Compounds with the same formula but different structures.
Macromolecules: molecules that are gigantic.
Polymers: A long molecule consisting of many identical or similar building blocks strung together.
Monomers: The building blocks of polymers.
Dehydration reaction: a reaction that removes a molecule of water that link monomers together to form a polymer.
Hydrolysis: cells break bonds between monomers by adding water to them; reverse dehydration reaction.
Enzymes: specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions in cells.

Reading Journal:
1) What is Lactose intolerance? Lactose intolerance is when people do not have an enzyme called lactase to help break down the lactose.
2) What are the main types of large molecules? Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates, and Nucleic Acids.
3) What are the four levels of Protein Structure? First is the Primary structure, which is the simplest; second is the Secondary Structure, which is either an alpha helix or a pleated sheet; third is the Tertiary strcture, which all of the proteins are in a globular like, three dimensional shape; and Quaternary, are when four globular three dimensional shapes are cluttered together.

Five Facts:
1) Linus Pauling and his colleagues discovered how oxygen molecules attach to the iron atoms of hemoglobin in 1935.
2) Monosaccharides are carbohydrate monomers. Polysaccharides are monosaccharides are just polymers of monosaccharides linked together by dehydration reaction.
3) Dehydration reaction is used to link monomers together to form polymers.
4) Phospholipids contain only two fatty acids attached to glycerol instead of three.
5) Anabolic steroids are synthetic variants of the male hormone testosterone. They are also used to treat general anemia and other illnesses that may destroy the body muscle.

Many of the molecules that a cell makes are composed of carbon. The carbon atoms are bonded to other element's atoms to make different combinations. Carbon based molecules are called organic compounds. Compounds that are only composed of hydrogen and carbon are called hydrocargons. Their carbon skeletons may vary in length, be branched or unbranched, have double bonds, and/or arranged in rings. There are different functional groups of organic compounds and are considered hydrophillic (water-lovin'). Hydroxyl group consists of hydrogen and oxygen. A carbonyl group is a carbon atom linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom. A carboxyl consists of a carbon double bonded to an oxygen and a hydroxyl group. An amino group is composed of a nitrogen bonded to hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton. A phosphate group contains phosphorous to four oxygen atoms. a methyl group contains a carbon bond to three hydrogens. Macromolecules are just big molecules. A polymer is a long molecule consisting of monomers. they are linked together by a dehydration reaction, which just removes a molecule of water to attach together. Hydrolysis breaks the polymers by adding water.
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are just single unit sugars and are the main fuel molecules for cellular work. A disaccharide are just two monosaccharides that are formed by a dehydration reaction. The most common disaccharide is sucros. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides linked together by dehydration reactions. Some examples are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
Lipids are diverse compounds that are grouped together because they mix poorly with water. Lipids are hydrophobic (water hatin'). Their main function is to store energy. Fatty acids and fats that have double bonds are considered unsaturated, having less than the max number of hydrogens. Those with the max number of hydrogens are saturated. Phospholipids are structurally simlar to fats, but contain only two fatty acids instead of three. They have a hydrophillic head and hydrophobic tails.
Protein is a polymer constructed from amino acid monomers. Proteins are important to the structures of cells and organism and participate in everything they do. Enzymes are specialized macromolecules that are catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in cells. Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds. A peptide bond is a covalent linkage. Two aminos acids are dipeptide bonds. A chain of amino acids are polypeptide. Denaturationis when polypeptide chains unravel and lose their specific shape and function.

There are four different levels of protein structure: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary structure.
Primary: The simplest structure, is a unique structure of amino acids.
Secondary: There are basically two forms of secondary structure, helix (shown), and pleated sheet (not shown).
Tertiary: It is a three dimensional shape of a polypeptide.
Quaternary: A complete transthyretin molecule with four identical globular subunits.


Video Link Dehydration and hydrolysis:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fOcffAxZwC0&feature=related

Chapter Two

Key Terms:
Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
Element: A substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical means.
Trace Elements: Needed by all forms of life but in very few amounts.
Compound: a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio.
Atom: Smallest form of matter.
Proton: subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge.
Electron: subatomic particle with a single negative electrical charge.
Neutron: electrically neutral. (no electrical charge)
Atomic Number: same unique number of protons
Mass Number: Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Atomic Mass: Approximaely equal to its mass number.
Isotope: an element that has the same numbers of protons and electrons and behave identically in chemical reactions, but have different number of neutrons.
Radioactive Isotope: one in whicht he nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.

Reading Journal:
1) What is Matter and what does it consist of? Matter is anything and everything that occupies space. Even a small atom is considered matter. All living organisms are compose of matter.
2) What is Polarity? It is when electrons are not shared equally due to differences in electronegativity. For example, water is H2O. if there were a diagram, there would be one oxygen atom between two hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen has a postive charge and oxygen has a negative charge. Therefore, there is a higher positive charge than a negative charge.
3) What is the PH scale? The PH scale is used to describe how acidic or basic a solution is. PH stands for potential of Hydrogen. The scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being the most acidic and 14 being the most basic. The PH unit stands for a tenfold change in a concentration of hydrogen atoms. On the PH scale, 7 is neutral.

Five Facts:
1) Atoms are the smallest unit of an element. It will usually consist of neutrons, protons, and electrons.
2) Ice is less dense than water. Usually, a solid is more dense than its liquid form. The hydrogen bonds in ice hold molecules in ice further apart than in water.
3) An aqueous solution is one in which water is the solvent.
4) Surface tension is a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.
5) Electronegativity is when an atom's attraction for shared electrons.

Living organisms are actually composed of abotu 25 elements. Four of them include oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen- which make up about 96% of the human body. An element is asubstance that cannot be broke down to other substances by ordinary chemical means. All living organisms are composed of matter. Matter is anything and everything that occupies space and has mass. Trace elements are also apart of the 25 elements. Even though there are only trace amounts inside the human body, they are essential for the body's health.
A compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elemetns combined in a fixed ratio. Most compounds consist of only two elements. But, most of the compounds in living organisms contain at least three or four elements; mostly hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Different arragnements of the atoms of the elements determine unique properties for each compound. An atom is the smallest unit of matter that contains properties of an element. There are three kinds of particles; Protons(+), Electrons(-), and neutrons. Protons are a subatomic particle with a single positive charge. Electrons have a negative charge while neutrons are neutral, or no charge. Isotope is a variant form of an atom. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons, but different number of neutrons.

Ice is actually less dense than its liquid form, water. On the left is an example of water and the right is ice.







Video Link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zEX2aGpIDBY

Chapter One

Key Terms:
Biosphere: consists of all the environments on Earth that support life.
Ecosystem: consists of all the organisms living in a particular area
Organism: an individual living thing.
Organ System: consists of several organs that work together in performing specific functions.
Organs: part of the organ system that has a specific purpose.
Tissues: Makes up the organs and are just cells combined together.
Cell: Makes up tissue and are formed by molecules and atoms.
Organelle: a membrane-bound structure that performs a specific function in a cell.
Molecule: a cluster of atoms held together by chemical bonds.
Producers: Provides the food for a typical ecotsystem such as a tree.
Consumers: Eat Plants and otehr animals.
Prokayotic Cell: much simpler and usually small than a eukaryotic cell; Microorganisms like bacteria are prokaryotic.
Eukaryotic Cell: is subdivided by internal membranes into many different functional compartments, or organelles, including the nucleus that houses the cell's DNA.

Reading Journal:
1)What are living organisms made of? Living organisms are made of molecultes
2)What is the Hierarchary of life? It starts with biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, then molecules. It starts with the largest, stepping down the the smallest.
3)What is Evolution and Natural Selection? Charles Darwin created the Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection. Evolution explains that species living today are descendnts of ancestral species. Natural Selection is an editing mechanism that occurs when populations of organism, have been exposed to enviroments, they inherit variations to accomadate.

Five Facts
1) The Chemical basis for all life's kinship is DNA as genetic material.
2) protists are a diverse collection of mostly single-celled organisms
3) A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a set of observations.
4) A cell is the basic unit of life. It is also the lowest level of the Hierarchy of life.
5) Ecosystems are characterized by the cycling of chemical nutrients from the atmosphere and soil to producers to consumers to decomposers and backt o the enviroment.

The Heirarchy of life starts with the biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, and the molecule. Bioshphere consists of all the enviroments on Earth. A molecule is a cluster of atoms held together by chemical bonds. DNA, for example, provides information and a blueprint to begin constructing organisms, then pass off from parent to offspring. There are three domains: domain Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Domains Bacteria and Archaea consists of prokaryotes and Domain Eukarya includes various protist kingdoms.
Scientists use mainly two approaches to science; discovery science, and hyposthesis-based science. Discovery science concerns itself mostly with describing nature. it can lead to important conclusions based on inductive reasoning. Hypothesis-Based sciences concerns itself with explaining nature; it involves proposing and testing a hypothesis. Hypothesis based science use deductive reasoning logic to come up with ways to test hypotheses. Most research combines these two forms of approach.

This is an example of the Heirarchy of life. It starts with an atom to turn into a molecule, to turn into organelles, etc. All the way until it
it is a living organism. This only demonstrates up until an organism. After, it is much broader.











Video Link:
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